As this bundle shows, Western knowledge permeated Japanese culture in the Meiji era (1868–1912). Japan imported Western technology, along with legal and political systems, inspiring a term for "Japanese spirit imbued with Western learning." Japan also adopted the West's solar calendar, prohibiting all other calendar systems. With new railroad know-how, the Japanese shifted the main means of transportation from boats to trains, filling in many canals to lay tracks. But the blend of East and West was not entirely smooth; Soseki's Meiji-era novel "I Am a Cat" portrays the uneasy mix of Japanese traditions and Western modernity.

In the Meiji era (1868–1912), a westernizing Japan moved away from traditional culture, as this bundle illustrates. People rejected certain superstitions as embarrassing, such as a belief in yokai (supernatural creatures). Kabuki became more modern and radical. The Japanese viewed some Western attire as stylish, including clothing with high collars. Meiji-era students dressed shabbily to convey that they were intellectuals, inspiring a term for "unconcerned about one's personal appearance." But East sometimes clashed with West; a push to keep Japanese painting styles purely Japanese sparked boycotts of Western art.

In the Meiji era (1868–1912), Western architecture transformed Japan, as this bundle shows. The Japanese government imported architecture books. Red bricks from Europe became popular symbols of modernity. Even the term for "brick" became trendy! English architect Josiah Conder apprenticed under a Japanese artist, then designed Western-style buildings in Tokyo, turning one area into a London-style business district. His Japanese disciples also designed prominent Western buildings in Japan. Modernization changed architectural language, too. For instance, 塔 once had exclusively religious meanings (e.g., "pagoda") but soon primarily represented a Western-style tower.

Westernizing in the Meiji era (1868–1912) changed the way the Japanese drank and ate, as this bundle reflects. Importing British machinery enabled people to mass-produce shochu. Western confections flowed into Japan, and the arrival of ice cream inspired a green tea flavor. Before 1868, the Japanese didn't eat beef, believing cows to be exclusively for physical labor. Buddhism also drove a disdain for consuming quadrupeds. But with westernization the Japanese suddenly viewed beef consumption　as enlightened. Out of discomfort, though, they did name some meat dishes with flowery euphemisms (e.g., peonies and cherry blossoms).

As this bundle reflects, Japanese women gained rights in the Meiji era (1868–1912). Previously, they didn't ride horses, as people considered that ill mannered. In an innovation, Meiji-era prints depicted female equestrians, including women warriors in the 1877 Satsuma Rebellion against imperial forces. Earlier, in 1868, Yae Niijima fought against the Meiji government, skillfully using a rifle to defend a castle. Women's sexuality changed, too; trysts occurred in new love hotels and even in restaurant waiting rooms. Despite these moves toward equality, men's and women's language became distinct. Separate pronouns emerged, as did female vocabulary and syntax.

As Japanese Buddhist temples are eminently tranquil, it's unthinkable that, as this bundle shows (especially the 毀 essay), an 1868 government mandate to separate Shinto and Buddhism nearly eliminated the latter religion. The Meiji government banned Fuke Zen, viewing its monks as informants for the ousted government. More significantly, the government aimed to make Shinto the national religion, prompting the destruction of Buddhist property nationwide. People burned sutras and discarded Buddhist statues, and monks either returned to secular life or became Shinto priests. With about 40,000 temples destroyed—up to 80 percent in certain places—Japanese Buddhism neared eradication.

With momentous changes, new names emerge (as when countries split off from other nations or when people marry or divorce). Accordingly, the Meiji era (1868–1912) ushered in copious changes to proper names, as this bundle shows. People needed to choose surnames, and many drew inspiration from nature. Provinces became prefectures, though borders often changed. For instance, three provinces combined to form Osaka Prefecture. Japan's capital moved from Kyoto to Tokyo in 1868 and acquired a new name by 1895; with the colonization of Taiwan, Japan became an imperial power, making Tokyo the "imperial capital" (帝京).

As this bundle shows, the Meiji era (1868–1912) plunged the Japanese economy into turmoil. The government disbanded feudal domains, leaving many samurai unemployed. In response, the government provided them with work—a land reclamation project. Silkworms also saved the day! Raw silk accounted for 70 percent of Japan's exports, generating money that enabled the Japanese to buy machines. As the country rapidly industrialized and developed a capitalist economy, feudal workers became wage laborers, gaining freedom and power thanks to their earnings. But these changes also brought tumult to the country in the form of labor disputes, strikes, and riots.

With the Meiji Restoration of 1868, when samurai drove out the shogun and restored Emperor Meiji to power, Japan entered a period of staggering transformation. The nation opened to the West, incorporating its knowledge, technology, and institutions. No longer a feudal society, Japan developed a market economy. With a new national system of public schools, Japan produced a skilled workforce who contributed to rapid industrial growth. All of these changes and more led Japan to become a formidable military power by 1895. This bundle provides a sweeping overview of how Japan became unrecognizable during the Meiji era (1868–1912).

Some consider the Meiji Restoration of 1868 a bloodless revolution, but as this bundle shows, profound change doesn't come without turbulence. The Shogitai army (pro-shogun radicals) waged war against the Meiji government, only to be defeated in a one-day battle in 1868. The same year, three thousand samurai took on governmental forces in the monthlong Boshin War, losing and bringing the samurai era to an end. Even nowadays certain individuals resist the changes wrought by the Meiji Restoration; the essays include titles by authors who label that event a mistake and condemn the glorification of the Meiji era (1868–1912).

True revolutions require a sea change in a culture's thinking. As this bundle shows, that occurred in many realms during the Meiji era (1868–1912). For instance, writer Yukichi Fukuzawa and entrepreneur Zenjiro Yasuda strongly promoted frugality. So did the Meiji government, which popularized such slogans as "Extravagance Is Our Enemy." The idea was that having the masses save would help Japan develop economically. In addition, old Confucian ideals began to conflict with the population's new hankering for freedom and individualism, tearing families asunder. Finally, the Japanese started to reject plagiarism and embraced concepts such as copyrights.

In the Edo period (1603–1867), the Japanese reconfigured geographical features and built abundant infrastructure, as this bundle shows. Where multiple rivers met, engineers changed their flow. Numerous canals emerged, providing transportation, protecting land from disasters, supplying water to fields, and stimulating commerce. New aqueducts connected rivers, and new wells created access to groundwater. So popular was the 井戸 (いど: well) during the Edo era that people jokingly call it the "Ido" era! And in 1767 on Kyushu, people launched an ambitious project to reclaim vast quantities of land from the sea. That effort continues today!

As one essay in this bundle shows, theft wasn't rampant in the Edo period (1603–1867). Regular people didn't even lock their homes, greatly trusting their communities. But as other essays reflect, the era gave rise to copious crime novels, detectives' memoirs, and dramas, so people clearly did commit crimes. Arrests ensued; barbed metal made it possible to catch suspects, and the police then bound detainees' hands with rope. Officers weren't squeaky-clean, though. One expression alludes to a particular man who was both a gambler and a policeman. In the latter capacity, he cracked down on gamblers!

Justice was severe in the Edo era (1603–1867), as this bundle shows. People could legally kill enemies. Samurai faced house arrest for crimes. The shogunate locked tax evaders in cages and submerged them in frigid water. Some criminals had their foreheads tattooed. Capital punishment modalities included burning at the stake, crucifying someone and stabbing the body with spears, and decapitation, which was a punishment for murder, robbery, or even the production of fake masu boxes! Some criminals were publicly displayed and kept alive for days as the public hacked at the neck with a dull bamboo saw. Fun times!

This collection shows that the government had massive control issues during the Edo era (1603–1867)! Commoners couldn't wear silk and could have surnames and swords only if granted permission. The authorities kept borders closed, greatly delaying access to vaccines. The government also banned Christianity and oppressed Christians. To justify extreme levels of control over citizens, the shogunate adopted Confucianism. Its teachings include dedication to one's master, a philosophy supporting the shogun's absolute power. But a rival doctrine emerged, and its criticism of Confucianism as repressive contributed to the collapse of the shogunate, ending the Edo era.

This bundle examines financial culture in the Edo period (1603–1867). Because most Japanese couldn't save much, they honored frugality, embracing the sayings "Bear noble poverty, despise riches" and "A man is still a man even if he's poor." Money was tight even for many provincial lords, who halved samurai salaries. But some folks did have money; they bought things on credit, paying off debts at year's end, and whatever the Edo native earned by day, he famously spent at night on drinking and prostitutes. Garments in which people stored cash gave rise to a term for "financial standing."

As this bundle shows, new industries in the Edo era (1603–1867) changed Japanese culture. Ample whaling caused whale images and whaling byproducts to proliferate in people's lives. Mining technology greatly improved, providing ongoing wealth for the shogunate and enabling the Japanese to export precious metals. Despite productive copper mining, Japan nearly exhausted that metal by using it to pay China for abundant raw silk, so citizens cultivated silkworms throughout Japan, and artisans developed techniques for weaving and dyeing silk. One other emergent industry was most resourceful; traders sold household sewage to farmers as fertilizer!

This bundle reflects that samurai in the Edo era (1603–1867) had an unusual relationship with money. They viewed earning as a "dirty thing," and they devalued vendors for selling things that others made. Still, the samurai must have resented putting in a day's work only to be paid in rice. When they lost their jobs, many former samurai became petty thieves and muggers. One famous movie showcases unemployed Edo-era samurai who avenged the death of their lord. The tale demonstrates the samurai code of honor, perhaps showing that values mattered to them more than anything, including money.

What a figure the samurai must have cut in the Edo era (1603–1867). As these essays explain, men shaved the tops of their heads. Kabukimono (samurai gangsters) had even stranger hairstyles, plus eye-catching clothes and behavior so eccentric that people often translate "kabukimono" as "the crazy ones." Samurai wore two swords—one large and one small—whereas commoners had only small ones. In urban areas, the rebellious kabukimono were both hated for their lawlessness and admired for their manliness. Samurai culture flourished so much that people created a rectangular mochi and playfully named it with a samurai allusion!